ACR–SPR–SSR PRACTICE PARAMETER FOR THE PERFORMANCE AND INTERPRETATION OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI) OF BONE, JOINT, AND SOFT-TISSUE INFECTIONS IN THE EXTREMITIES

PREAMBLE

INTRODUCTION

II.

INDICATIONS

III.

QUALIFICATIONS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF PERSONNEL

IV.

SAFETY GUIDELINES AND POSSIBLE CONTRAINDICATIONS

SPECIFICATIONS OF THE EXAMINATION

Patient Selection

SPECIFICATIONS OF THE EXAMINATION

Facility Requirements

SPECIFICATIONS OF THE EXAMINATION

Examination Technique

VI.

DOCUMENTATION

VII.

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS

VIII.

QUALITY CONTROL, AND IMPROVEMENT, SAFETY, INFECTION CONTROL, AND PATIENT EDUCATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Writing Committee – members represent their societies in the initial and final revision of this practice parameter

ACR
Mintz, Douglas N MD, Chair
Alaia, Erin MD
Johnson, Stefan MD
Levin, Terry L MD

SPR
Acharya, Patricia T MD
Leschied, Jessica R MD
Nguyen, Jie MD

SSR
Lala, Sonali MD
Martin-Carreras, Teresa MD
Vaswani, Devin MD

Committee on Musculoskeletal Imaging – Body Imaging

(ACR Committee responsible for sponsoring the draft through the process)

Subhas, Naveen MD, MPH, Chair	Alaia, Erin MD	Bredella, Miriam A MD	Chang, Connie Y MD
Colak, Ceylan MD	Garner, Hillary W MD	Gelczer, Robert Kent MD	Gonzalez, Felix MD
Gyftopoulos, Soterios MD, MSc	Johnson, Stefan MD	Mintz, Douglas N MD	Samet, Jonathan D MD
Shah, Jordyn DO

Committee on Practice Parameters and Technical Standards

(ACR Committee responsible for sponsoring the draft through the process)

Caplin, Drew M MD, Chair

Committee on Practice Parameters – Pediatric Imaging

(ACR Committee responsible for sponsoring the draft through the process)

Amodio, John B MD, Chair	Alizai, Hamza MD	Betz, Bradford W MD	Bhimaniya, Sudhir X MBBS, MD
Blumfield, Einat MD	Collard, Michael MD	Goldman-Yassen, Adam MD	Lai, Hollie A MD
Lala, Shailee V MD	Lasiecka, Zofia M MD, PhD	Laufer, Adina MD	Levin, Terry L MD
Li, Arleen MD	Maloney, John A MD	Noda, Sakura MD	Shah, Summit MD
Trout, Andrew T MD	Vatsky, Seth DO

Bulas, Dorothy I MD, Chair, Commission on Pediatric Radiology

Larson, David B MBA, MD, Chair, Commission on Quality and Safety

Rosenkrantz, Andrew MD, Chair, Commission on Body Imaging

Comments Reconciliation Committee

Batlle, Juan C MBA, MD - CSC, Chair	Rathi, Alisha MD - CSC, Co-Chair	Acharya, Patricia T MD	Alaia, Erin MD
Amodio, John B MD	Bulas, Dorothy I MD	Caplin, Drew M MD	Crummy, Timothy MD, MHA - CSC
Johnson, Stefan MD	Lala, Sonali MD	Larson, David B MBA, MD	Leschied, Jessica R MD
Levin, Terry L MD	Martin-Carreras, Teresa MD	Mintz, Douglas N MD	Nguyen, Jie MD
Rosenkrantz, Andrew MD	Schoppe, Kurt MD - CSC	Subhas, Naveen MD, MPH	Vaswani, Devin MD

REFERENCES

1. [17394922] Christian S, Kraas J, Conway WF. Musculoskeletal infections. Semin Roentgenol. 2007 Apr;42(2):92-101.
2. [-3197840] Resnick D, Kransdorf M. Bone and Joint Imaging. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders; 2004.
3. [10069312] Luhmann JD, Luhmann SJ. Etiology of septic arthritis in children: an update for the 1990s. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1999 Feb;15(1):40-2.
4. [9196369] Malleson PN. Management of childhood arthritis. Part 1: Acute arthritis. Arch Dis Child. 1997 May;76(5):460-2.
5. [7570150] Beauchamp NJ, Scott WW, Gottlieb LM, Fishman EK. CT evaluation of soft tissue and muscle infection and inflammation: a systematic compartmental approach. Skeletal Radiol. 1995 Jul;24(5):317-24.
6. [8564693] Beltran J. MR imaging of soft-tissue infection. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am. 1995 Nov;3(4):743-51.
7. [3602386] Beltran J, Noto AM, McGhee RB, Freedy RM, McCalla MS. Infections of the musculoskeletal system: high-field-strength MR imaging. Radiology. 1987 Aug;164(2):449-54.
8. [8712909] Bosshardt TL, Henderson VJ, Organ CH. Necrotizing soft-tissue infections. Arch Surg. 1996 Aug;131(8):846-52; discussion 852-4.
9. [9783789] Brothers TE, Tagge DU, Stutley JE, Conway WF, Del Schutte H, Byrne TK. Magnetic resonance imaging differentiates between necrotizing and non-necrotizing fasciitis of the lower extremity. J Am Coll Surg. 1998 Oct;187(4):416-21.
10. [15138315] Chauhan S, Jain S, Varma S, Chauhan SS. Tropical pyomyositis (myositis tropicans): current perspective. Postgrad Med J. 2004 May;80(943):267-70.
11. [10930480] ElliottDDDepartment of Surgery (DE), Madigan Army Medical Center, Fort Lewis, Washington 98431, USA., KuferaJ AJA, MyersR ARA. The microbiology of necrotizing soft tissue infections. Am J Surg 179:361-6, .
12. [12892352] Headley AJ. Necrotizing soft tissue infections: a primary care review. Am Fam Physician. 2003 Jul 15;68(2):323-8.
13. [-3197841] Hill MK, Sanders CV. Necrotizing and gangrenous soft tissue infections. In: Sanders CV, Nesbitt LT, Jr, ed. The skin and infection: a color atlas and text. Baltimore, Md: Williams & Wilkins; 1995:62-75.
14. [7748037] McHenry CR, Piotrowski JJ, Petrinic D, Malangoni MA. Determinants of mortality for necrotizing soft-tissue infections. Ann Surg. 1995 May;221(5):558-63; discussion 563-5.
15. [19714328] Turecki MB, Taljanovic MS, Stubbs AY, et al. Imaging of musculoskeletal soft tissue infections. Skeletal Radiol. 2010;39(10):957-971.
16. [8846561] Kolindou A, Liu Y, Ozker K, et al. In-111 WBC imaging of osteomyelitis in patients with underlying bone scan abnormalities. Clin Nucl Med. 1996 Mar;21(3):183-91.
17. [19182734] Palestro CJ, Love C, Bhargava KK. Labeled leukocyte imaging: current status and future directions. Q J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2009;53:105-23.
18. [1572113] Palestro CJ, Roumanas P, Swyer AJ, Kim CK, Goldsmith SJ. Diagnosis of musculoskeletal infection using combined In-111 labeled leukocyte and Tc-99m SC marrow imaging. Clin Nucl Med 1992;17:269-73.
19. [11606885] Wolf G, Aigner RM, Schwarz T. Diagnosis of bone infection using 99m Tc-HMPAO labelled leukocytes. Nucl Med Commun. 2001 Nov;22(11):1201-6.
20. [11547374] Joseph TN, Mujtaba M, Chen AL, et al. Efficacy of combined technetium-99m sulfur colloid/indium-111 leukocyte scans to detect infected total hip and knee arthroplasties. J Arthroplasty. 2001;16(6):753-758.
21. [3380966] Magnuson JE, Brown ML, Hauser MF, Berquist TH, Fitzgerald RH, Jr., Klee GG. In-111-labeled leukocyte scintigraphy in suspected orthopedic prosthesis infection: comparison with other imaging modalities. Radiology 1988;168:235-9.
22. [12783223] Taljanovic MS, Hunter TB, Fitzpatrick KA, Krupinski EA, Pope TL. Musculoskeletal magnetic resonance imaging: importance of radiography. Skeletal Radiol. 2003;32(7):403-411.
23. [17127204] Palestro CJ, Love C, Miller TT. Infection and musculoskeletal conditions: Imaging of musculoskeletal infections. [Review] [95 refs]. Baillieres Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 20(6):1197-218, 2006 Dec.
24. [9654584] Gylys-Morin VM. MR imaging of pediatric musculoskeletal inflammatory and infectious disorders. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am. 1998 Aug;6(3):537-59.
25. [17762382] Lalam RK, Cassar-Pullicino VN, Tins BJ. Magnetic resonance imaging of appendicular musculoskeletal infection. Top Magn Reson Imaging. 2007 Jun;18(3):177-91.
26. [24951214] Gilbertson-Dahdal D, Wright JE, Krupinski E, McCurdy WE, Taljanovic MS. Transphyseal involvement of pyogenic osteomyelitis is considerably more common than classically taught. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 203(1):190-5, 2014 Jul.
27. [25170391] Pugmire BS, Shailam R, Gee MS. Role of MRI in the diagnosis and treatment of osteomyelitis in pediatric patients. World J Radiol. 2014 Aug 28;6(8):530-7.
28. [37951653] Rafferty BA, Thakrar P. Chronic Recurrent Multifocal Osteomyelitis. [Review]. Med Clin North Am. 108(1):227-239, 2024 Jan.
29. [14990668] Crymes WB, Jr., Demos H, Gordon L. Detection of musculoskeletal infection with 18F-FDG PET: review of the current literature. J Nucl Med Technol. 2004;32(1):12-15.
30. [12072934] De Winter F, Vogelaers D, Gemmel F, Dierckx RA. Promising role of 18-F-fluoro-D-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography in clinical infectious diseases. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2002 Apr;21(4):247-57.
31. [9494496] Guhlmann A, Brecht-Krauss D, Suger G, et al. Chronic osteomyelitis: detection with FDG PET and correlation with histopathologic findings. Radiology. 1998;206(3):749-754.
32. [-3197843] Mettler FA, Guiberteau MJ. Inflammation and infection imaging. Essentials of Nuclear Medicine Imaging. 5th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2006:341-58.
33. [9724371] Sugawara Y, Braun DK, Kison PV, Russo JE, Zasadny KR, Wahl RL. Rapid detection of human infections with fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose and positron emission tomography: preliminary results. Eur J Nucl Med. 1998 Sep;25(9):1238-43.
34. [12563131] Schiesser M, Stumpe KD, Trentz O, Kossmann T, Von Schulthess GK. Detection of metallic implant-associated infections with FDG PET in patients with trauma: correlation with microbiologic results. Radiology. 2003 Feb;226(2):391-8.
35. [12388490] Stumpe KD, Zanetti M, Weishaupt D, Hodler J, Boos N, Von Schulthess GK. FDG positron emission tomography for differentiation of degenerative and infectious endplate abnormalities in the lumbar spine detected on MR imaging. AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. 179(5):1151-7, 2002 Nov.
36. [11756124] Ledermann HP, Schweitzer ME, Morrison WB. Nonenhancing tissue on MR imaging of pedal infection: characterization of necrotic tissue and associated limitations for diagnosis of osteomyelitis and abscess. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 178(1):215-22, 2002 Jan.
37. [24742801] Patel KB, Poplawski MM, Pawha PS, Naidich TP, Tanenbaum LN. Diffusion-weighted MRI "claw sign" improves differentiation of infectious from degenerative modic type 1 signal changes of the spine. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 35(8):1647-52, 2014 Aug.
38. [29582111] Dumont RA, Keen NN, Bloomer CW, et al. Clinical Utility of Diffusion-Weighted Imaging in Spinal Infections. Clin Neuroradiol. 29(3):515-522, 2019 Sep.
39. [18025514] Fayad LM, Carrino JA, Fishman EK. Musculoskeletal infection: role of CT in the emergency department. Radiographics. 2007;27(6):1723-1736.
40. [20479343] Zacharias N, Velmahos GC, Salama A, et al. Diagnosis of necrotizing soft tissue infections by computed tomography. Arch Surg. 2010 May;145(5):452-5.
41. [32221850] Deininger-Czermak E, Heimer J, Tappero C, Thali MJ, Gascho D. The added value of postmortem magnetic resonance imaging in cases of hanging compared to postmortem computed tomography and autopsy. Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2020 Jun;16(2):234-242.
42. [34145466] Alaia EF, Chhabra A, Simpfendorfer CS, et al. MRI nomenclature for musculoskeletal infection. [Review]. Skeletal Radiol. 50(12):2319-2347, 2021 Dec.
43. [27726741] Hayeri MR, Ziai P, Shehata ML, Teytelboym OM, Huang BK. Soft-Tissue Infections and Their Imaging Mimics: From Cellulitis to Necrotizing Fasciitis. [Review]. Radiographics. 36(6):1888-1910, 2016 Oct.
44. [29672405] Fernando SM, Tran A, Cheng W, et al. Necrotizing Soft Tissue Infection: Diagnostic Accuracy of Physical Examination, Imaging, and LRINEC Score: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Ann Surg. 269(1):58-65, 2019 01.
45. [30887193] Yoon MA, Chung HW, Yeo Y, et al. Distinguishing necrotizing from non-necrotizing fasciitis: a new predictive scoring integrating MRI in the LRINEC score. Eur Radiol. 29(7):3414-3423, 2019 Jul.
46. [10751496] White LM, Kim JK, Mehta M, et al. Complications of total hip arthroplasty: MR imaging-initial experience. Radiology. 2000;215:254-62.
47. [26587889] Talbot BS, Weinberg EP. MR Imaging with Metal-suppression Sequences for Evaluation of Total Joint Arthroplasty. [Review]. Radiographics. 36(1):209-25, 2016 Jan-Feb.
48. [31163511] Khodarahmi I, Isaac A, Fishman EK, Dalili D, Fritz J. Metal About the Hip and Artifact Reduction Techniques: From Basic Concepts to Advanced Imaging. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol. 2019 Jun;23(3):e68-e81.
49. [11917267] White LM, Buckwalter KA. Technical considerations: CT and MR imaging in the postoperative orthopedic patient. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol. 2002 Mar;6(1):5-17.
50. [18260036] Buckwalter KA. Optimizing imaging techniques in the postoperative patient. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol. 2007;11:261-72.
51. [18751851] Sofka CM, Potter HG, Adler RS, Pavlov H. Musculoskeletal imaging update: current applications of advanced imaging techniques to evaluate the early and long-term complications of patients with orthopedic implants. HSS J 2006;2:73-7.
52. [19038601] Love C, Marwin SE, Palestro CJ. Nuclear medicine and the infected joint replacement. Semin Nucl Med. 2009;39(1):66-78.
53. [19995624] Chihara S, Segreti J. Osteomyelitis. Dis Mon. 2010 Jan;56(1):5-31.
54. [16541223] Mellado Santos JM. Diagnostic imaging of pediatric hematogenous osteomyelitis: lessons learned from a multi-modality approach. Eur Radiol. 2006 Sep;16(9):2109-19.
55. [19132424] Yu JS, Habib P. MR imaging of urgent inflammatory and infectious conditions affecting the soft tissues of the musculoskeletal system. Emerg Radiol. 2009;16(4):267-276.
56. [11316360] Struk DW, Munk PL, Lee MJ, Ho SG, Worsley DF. Imaging of soft tissue infections. Radiol Clin North Am. 2001 Mar;39(2):277-303.
57. [6779547] Vukanovic S, Hauser H, Wettstein P. CT localization of myonecrosis for surgical decompression. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1980 Dec;135(6):1298.
58. [19081698] Edlich RF, Cross CL, Dahlstrom JJ, Long WB. Modern concepts of the diagnosis and treatment of necrotizing fasciitis. J Emerg Med. 2010 Aug;39(2):261-5.
59. [28432835] Chun CW, Jung JY, Baik JS, Jee WH, Kim SK, Shin SH. Detection of soft-tissue abscess: Comparison of diffusion-weighted imaging to contrast-enhanced MRI. J Magn Reson Imaging. 47(1):60-68, 2018 01.
60. [25064392] Reinus WR, De Cotiis D, Schaffer A. Changing patterns of septic tenosynovitis of the distal extremities. Emerg Radiol. 2015 Apr;22(2):133-9.
61. [28181919] Johnston JJ, Murray-Krezan C, Dehority W. Suppurative complications of acute hematogenous osteomyelitis in children. J Pediatr Orthop B. 26(6):491-496, 2017 Nov.
62. [18299911] Theodorou SJ, Theodorou DJ, Resnick D. Imaging findings of complications affecting the upper extremity in intravenous drug users: featured cases. Emerg Radiol. 2008 Jul;15(4):227-39.
63. [-3098654] American College of Radiology. ACR Practice Parameter for Performing and Interpreting Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). Available at: https://gravitas.acr.org/PPTS/GetDocumentView?docId=146+&releaseId=2
64. [-3188538] American College of Radiology. ACR Committee on MR Safety. 2024 ACR Manual on MR Safety. Available at: https://edge.sitecorecloud.io/americancoldf5f-acrorgf92a-productioncb02-3650/media/ACR/Files/Clinical/Radiology-Safety/Manual-on-MR-Safety.pdf.
65. [-3197776] Shellock FG. Reference Manual for Magnetic Resonance Safety, Implants, and Devices. Los Angeles, Calif: Biomedical Research Publishing Group; 2005.
66. [15284433] Shellock FG, Crues JV. MR procedures: biologic effects, safety, and patient care. Radiology. 2004 Sep;232(3):635-52.
67. [-3197748] American College of Radiology. ACR–SPR Practice Parameter for the use of Intravascular Contrast Media. Available at https://gravitas.acr.org/PPTS/GetDocumentView?docId=142+&releaseId=2
68. [-3197619] American College of Radiology. ACR–SIR Practice Parameter For Minimal and/or Moderate Sedation/Analgesia. Available at https://gravitas.acr.org/PPTS/GetDocumentView?docId=95+&releaseId=2
69. [10844863] Firbank MJ, Harrison RM, Williams ED, Coulthard A. Quality assurance for MRI: practical experience. Br J Radiol. 2000 Apr;73(868):376-83.
70. [15342757] Potter HG, Nestor BJ, Sofka CM, Ho ST, Peters LE, Salvati EA. Magnetic resonance imaging after total hip arthroplasty: evaluation of periprosthetic soft tissue. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2004;86-A(9):1947-1954.
71. [16530633] Ramnath RR. 3T MR imaging of the musculoskeletal system (Part I): considerations, coils, and challenges. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am. 2006 Feb;14(1):27-40.
72. [16530634] Ramnath RR. 3T MR imaging of the musculoskeletal system (Part II): clinical applications. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am. 2006;14(1):41-62.
73. [3336680] Tang JS, Gold RH, Bassett LW, Seeger LL. Musculoskeletal infection of the extremities: evaluation with MR imaging. Radiology. 1988 Jan;166(1 Pt 1):205-9.
74. [3945757] Kneeland JB, Shimakawa A, Wehrli FW. Effect of intersection spacing on MR image contrast and study time. Radiology. 1986 Mar;158(3):819-22.
75. [23478935] Guillerman RP.. Osteomyelitis and beyond. Pediatr Radiol. 43 Suppl 1:S193-203, 2013 Mar.
76. [23883225] Metwalli ZA, Kan JH, Munjal KA, Orth RC, Zhang W, Guillerman RP. MRI of suspected lower extremity musculoskeletal infection in the pediatric patient: how useful is bilateral imaging?. AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. 201(2):427-32, 2013 Aug.
77. [7976893] Rubin DA, Kneeland JB. MR imaging of the musculoskeletal system: technical considerations for enhancing image quality and diagnostic yield. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1994 Nov;163(5):1155-63.
78. [9393511] Erickson SJ. High-resolution imaging of the musculoskeletal system. Radiology. 1997 Dec;205(3):593-618.
79. [10194785] Delfaut EM, Beltran J, Johnson G, Rousseau J, Marchandise X, Cotten A. Fat suppression in MR imaging: techniques and pitfalls. Radiographics. 1999;19(2):373-82.
80. [32648576] Andronikou S, Kraft JK, Offiah AC, et al. Whole-body MRI in the diagnosis of paediatric CNO/CRMO. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2020 Oct 01;59(10):2671-2680.
81. [35133566] Aydingoz U, Yildiz AE. MRI in the Diagnosis and Treatment Response Assessment of Chronic Nonbacterial Osteomyelitis in Children and Adolescents. [Review]. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 24(2):27-39, 2022 02.
82. [11641161] Rybicki FJ, Chung T, Reid J, Jaramillo D, Mulkern RV, Ma J. Fast three-point dixon MR imaging using low-resolution images for phase correction: a comparison with chemical shift selective fat suppression for pediatric musculoskeletal imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2001 Nov;177(5):1019-23.
83. [2784268] Shuman WP, Baron RL, Peters MJ, Tazioli PK. Comparison of STIR and spin-echo MR imaging at 1.5 T in 90 lesions of the chest, liver, and pelvis. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1989 Apr;152(4):853-9.
84. [8249717] Mirowitz SA. Fast scanning and fat-suppression MR imaging of musculoskeletal disorders. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1993;161(6):1147-1157.
85. [7588872] Ziedses des Plantes BG, Koster K. Comparison of low-field versus high-field MR imaging. Eur J Radiol. 1995 Jul;20(2):156-8.
86. [18046547] Jaramillo D, Laor T. Pediatric musculoskeletal MRI: basic principles to optimize success. Pediatr Radiol. 2008 Apr;38(4):379-91.
87. [17242228] Yao L, Pitts JT, Thomasson D. Isotropic 3D fast spin-echo with proton-density-like contrast: a comprehensive approach to musculoskeletal MRI. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2007 Feb;188(2):W199-201.
88. [16037509] Collins MS, Schaar MM, Wenger DE, Mandrekar JN. T1-weighted MRI characteristics of pedal osteomyelitis. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 185(2):386-93, 2005 Aug.
89. [17340164] McGuinness B, Wilson N, Doyle AJ. The "penumbra sign" on T1-weighted MRI for differentiating musculoskeletal infection from tumour. Skeletal Radiol. 2007 May;36(5):417-21.
90. [20936273] Johnson DP, Hernanz-Schulman M, Martus JE, Lovejoy SA, Yu C, Kan JH. Significance of epiphyseal cartilage enhancement defects in pediatric osteomyelitis identified by MRI with surgical correlation. Pediatr Radiol. 41(3):355-61, 2011 Mar.
91. [2195271] Hanna SL, Langston JW, Gronemeyer SA, Fletcher BD. Subtraction technique for contrast-enhanced MR images of musculoskeletal tumors. Magn Reson Imaging. 1990;8(3):213-5.
92. [22194497] Browne LP, Guillerman RP, Orth RC, Patel J, Mason EO, Kaplan SL. Community-acquired staphylococcal musculoskeletal infection in infants and young children: necessity of contrast-enhanced MRI for the diagnosis of growth cartilage involvement. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 198(1):194-9, 2012 Jan.
93. [8126269] Smith RC, Constable RT, Reinhold C, McCauley T, Lange RC, McCarthy S. Fast spin echo STIR imaging. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1994;18(2):209-13.
94. [-3188535] American College of Radiology. ACR Committee on Drugs and Contrast Media. Manual on Contrast Media. Available at: https://www.acr.org/Clinical-Resources/Clinical-Tools-and-Reference/Contrast-Manual.
95. [22268189] Kim EY, Kwack KS, Cho JH, Lee DH, Yoon SH. Usefulness of dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI in differentiating between septic arthritis and transient synovitis in the hip joint. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 198(2):428-33, 2012 Feb.
96. [29787313] Gholamrezanezhad A, Basques K, Batouli A, Matcuk G, Alavi A, Jadvar H. Clinical Nononcologic Applications of PET/CT and PET/MRI in Musculoskeletal, Orthopedic, and Rheumatologic Imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2018 Jun;210(6):W245-W263.
97. [24172679] Mignemi ME, Menge TJ, Cole HA, et al. Epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment of pericapsular pyomyositis of the hip in children. J Pediatr Orthop. 34(3):316-25, 2014 Apr-May.
98. [21571661] Morelli JN, Runge VM, Ai F, et al. An image-based approach to understanding the physics of MR artifacts. Radiographics. 2011;31(3):849-66.
99. [28267547] Kirchgesner T, Perlepe V, Michoux N, Larbi A, Vande Berg B. Fat suppression at 2D MR imaging of the hands: Dixon method versus CHESS technique and STIR sequence. Eur J Radiol. 2017 Apr;89():S0720-048X(17)30015-3.
100. [3495155] Haacke EM, Lenz GW. Improving MR image quality in the presence of motion by using rephasing gradients. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1987 Jun;148(6):1251-8.
101. [19164029] Liu Y, Ji JX. Minimal-SAR RF pulse optimization for parallel transmission in MRI. Annu Int Conf IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. 2008;2008():5774-7.
102. [28952012] Alaia EF, Benedick A, Obuchowski NA, et al. Comparison of a fast 5-min knee MRI protocol with a standard knee MRI protocol: a multi-institutional multi-reader study. Skeletal Radiology. 47(1):107-116, 2018 Jan.
103. [28639870] Garwood ER, Recht MP, White LM. Advanced Imaging Techniques in the Knee: Benefits and Limitations of New Rapid Acquisition Strategies for Routine Knee MRI. [Review]. AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. 209(3):552-560, 2017 Sep.
104. [31991448] Johnson PM, Recht MP, Knoll F. Improving the Speed of MRI with Artificial Intelligence. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol. 2020 Feb;24(1):12-20.
105. [11392291] Peh WC, Chan JH. Artifacts in musculoskeletal magnetic resonance imaging: identification and correction. Skeletal Radiol. 2001 Apr;30(4):179-91.
106. [18085188] Vandevenne JE, Vanhoenacker FM, Parizel PM, Butts Pauly K, Lang RK. Reduction of metal artefacts in musculoskeletal MR imaging. JBR-BTR. 2007;90(5):345-9.
107. [27841342] Jiang MH, He C, Feng JM, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging parameter optimizations for diagnosis of periprosthetic infection and tumor recurrence in artificial joint replacement patients. Sci. rep.. 6:36995, 2016 11 14.
108. [25472553] Müller GM, Lundin B, von Schewelov T, Müller MF, Ekberg O, Månsson S. Evaluation of metal artifacts in clinical MR images of patients with total hip arthroplasty using different metal artifact-reducing sequences. Skeletal Radiol. 2015 Mar;44(3):353-9.
109. [21862766] Hayter CL, Koff MF, Shah P, Koch KM, Miller TT, Potter HG. MRI after arthroplasty: comparison of MAVRIC and conventional fast spin-echo techniques. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2011;197(3):W405-411.
110. [30310989] Jawhar A, Reichert M, Kostrzewa M, et al. Usefulness of slice encoding for metal artifact correction (SEMAC) technique for reducing metal artifacts after total knee arthroplasty. Eur. j. orthop. surg. traumatol.. 29(3):659-666, 2019 Apr.
111. [9169715] Craig JG, Amin MB, Wu K, et al. Osteomyelitis of the diabetic foot: MR imaging-pathologic correlation. Radiology. 203(3):849-55, 1997 Jun.
112. [-3197621] American College of Radiology. ACR Practice Parameter for Communication of Diagnostic Imaging Findings. Available at https://gravitas.acr.org/PPTS/GetDocumentView?docId=74+&releaseId=2
113. [-3197844] Shellock FG. Guide to MR Procedures and Metallic Objects: Update 2001. 7th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2001.
114. [18806156] Shellock FG, Spinazzi A. MRI safety update 2008: part 2, screening patients for MRI. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2008 Oct;191(4):1140-9.
115. [32809857] Gorelik N, Gyftopoulos S. Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Musculoskeletal Imaging: From the Request to the Report. Can Assoc Radiol J. 2021 Feb;72(1):45-59.
116. [32947256] Gewirtz JI, Skidmore A, Smyth MD, et al. Use of fast-sequence spine MRI in pediatric patients. Journal of Neurosurgery. Pediatrics.. 26(6):676-681, 2020 12 01.J Neurosurg Pediatrics. 26(6):676-681, 2020 12 01.
117. [36786971] Albano D, Gitto S, Messina C, et al. MRI-based artificial intelligence to predict infection following total hip arthroplasty failure. Radiol Med. 2023 Mar;128(3):340-346.
118. [30177857] Kim K, Kim S, Lee YH, Lee SH, Lee HS, Kim S, Performance of the deep convolutional neural network based magnetic resonance image scoring algorithm for differentiating between tuberculous and pyogenic spondylitis. Scientific Reports. 8(1):13124, 2018 09 03.
119. [-3197639] American College of Radiology. ACR–AAPM Technical Standard for Diagnostic Medical Physics Performance Monitoring of Magnetic Resonance (MR) Imaging Equipment. Available at https://gravitas.acr.org/PPTS/GetDocumentView?docId=57+&releaseId=2