ACR–SPR PRACTICE PARAMETER FOR THE SAFE AND OPTIMAL PERFORMANCE OF FETAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI)

PREAMBLE

I. INTRODUCTION

II. INDICATIONS

III. QUALIFICATIONS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF PERSONNEL

IV. SAFETY GUIDELINES AND POSSIBLE CONTRAINDICATIONS

V. SPECIFICATIONS OF THE EXAMINATION

VI. DOCUMENTATION

VII. EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS

VIII. QUALITY CONTROL AND IMPROVEMENT, SAFETY, INFECTION CONTROL, AND PATIENT EDUCATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

1. [12695920] Breysem L, Bosmans H, Dymarkowski S, et al. The value of fast MR imaging as an adjunct to ultrasound in prenatal diagnosis. Eur Radiol. 2003;13(7):1538-1548.
2. [15286310] Frates MC, Kumar AJ, Benson CB, Ward VL, Tempany CM. Fetal anomalies: comparison of MR imaging and US for diagnosis. Radiology. 2004;232(2):398-404.
3. [15914683] Glenn OA, Goldstein RB, Li KC, et al. Fetal magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of fetuses referred for sonographically suspected abnormalities of the corpus callosum. J Ultrasound Med. 2005 Jun;24(6):791-804.
4. [10352581] Levine D, Barnes PD, Edelman RR. Obstetric MR imaging. Radiology. 1999 Jun;211(3):609-17.
5. [9574750] Quinn TM, Hubbard AM, Adzick NS. Prenatal magnetic resonance imaging enhances fetal diagnosis. J Pediatr Surg. 1998 Apr;33(4):553-8.
6. [12592261] Twickler DM, Magee KP, Caire J, Zaretsky M, Fleckenstein JL, Ramus RM. Second-opinion magnetic resonance imaging for suspected fetal central nervous system abnormalities. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003 Feb;188(2):492-6.
7. [30178081] Chapman T, Alazraki AL, Eklund MJ. A survey of pediatric diagnostic radiologists in North America: current practices in fetal magnetic resonance imaging. Pediatr Radiol. 2018 Dec;48(13):1924-1935.
8. [27988140] Griffiths PD, Bradburn M, Campbell MJ, et al. Use of MRI in the diagnosis of fetal brain abnormalities in utero (MERIDIAN): a multicentre, prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2017 Feb 04;389(10068):S0140-6736(16)31723-8.
9. [11756117] Avni FE, Guibaud L, Robert Y, et al. MR imaging of fetal sacrococcygeal teratoma: diagnosis and assessment. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2002 Jan;178(1):179-83.
10. [14975971] Cassart M, Massez A, Metens T, et al. Complementary role of MRI after sonography in assessing bilateral urinary tract anomalies in the fetus. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2004 Mar;182(3):689-95.
11. [10580940] Coakley FV, Hricak H, Filly RA, Barkovich AJ, Harrison MR. Complex fetal disorders: effect of MR imaging on management--preliminary clinical experience. Radiology. 1999 Dec;213(3):691-6.
12. [2017947] HataKK, HataTT, KitaoMM. Antenatal diagnosis of sacrococcygeal teratoma facilitated by combined use of Doppler sonography and MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol 156:1115-6, .
13. [15017565] Hedrick HL, Flake AW, Crombleholme TM, et al. Sacrococcygeal teratoma: prenatal assessment, fetal intervention, and outcome. J Pediatr Surg. 2004 Mar;39(3):430-8; discussion 430-8.
14. [9435729] Kirkinen P, Partanen K, Merikanto J, Ryynänen M, Haring P, Heinonen K. Ultrasonic and magnetic resonance imaging of fetal sacrococcygeal teratoma. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1997 Nov;76(10):917-22.
15. [10646819] PoutamoJJDepartment of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Hospital of Kuopio, Finland., VanninenRR, PartanenKK, KirkinenPP. Diagnosing fetal urinary tract abnormalities: benefits of MRI compared to ultrasonography. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 79:65-71, .
16. [12029338] SaguintaahMagaliMm-saguintaah@chu-montpellier.fr, CoutureAlainA, VeyracCorinneC, BaudCatherineC, QuereMarie-PierreMP. MRI of the fetal gastrointestinal tract. Pediatr Radiol 32:395-404, .
17. [8166007] TomàPPDepartment of Radiology, Giannina Gaslini Children's Hospital, Genoa, Italy., LucigraiGG, MarzoliAA, LituaniaMM. Prenatal diagnosis of metastatic adrenal neuroblastoma with sonography and MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol 162:1183-4, .
18. [15565345] Adamsbaum C, Moutard ML, André C, et al. MRI of the fetal posterior fossa. Pediatr Radiol. 2005 Feb;35(2):124-40.
19. [17957045] Benacerraf BR, Shipp TD, Bromley B, Levine D. What does magnetic resonance imaging add to the prenatal sonographic diagnosis of ventriculomegaly?. J Ultrasound Med. 2007 Nov;26(11):1513-22.
20. [12632366] Bouchard S, Davey MG, Rintoul NE, Walsh DS, Rorke LB, Adzick NS. Correction of hindbrain herniation and anatomy of the vermis after in utero repair of myelomeningocele in sheep. J Pediatr Surg. 2003 Mar;38(3):451-8; discussion 451-8.
21. [9556041] d'Ercole C, Girard N, Cravello L, et al. Prenatal diagnosis of fetal corpus callosum agenesis by ultrasonography and magnetic resonance imaging. Prenat Diagn. 1998 Mar;18(3):247-53.
22. [2383875] Dinh DH, Wright RM, Hanigan WC. The use of magnetic resonance imaging for the diagnosis of fetal intracranial anomalies. Childs Nerv Syst. 1990 Jun;6(4):212-5.
23. [16549605] Ghai S, Fong KW, Toi A, Chitayat D, Pantazi S, Blaser S. Prenatal US and MR imaging findings of lissencephaly: review of fetal cerebral sulcal development. Radiographics. 2006;26(2):389-405.
24. [15840804] Glenn OA, Norton ME, Goldstein RB, Barkovich AJ. Prenatal diagnosis of polymicrogyria by fetal magnetic resonance imaging in monochorionic cotwin death. J Ultrasound Med. 2005 May;24(5):711-6.
25. [9819861] Greco P, Resta M, Vimercati A, et al. Antenatal diagnosis of isolated lissencephaly by ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 1998 Oct;12(4):276-9.
26. [11585323] Guo WY, Chang CY, Ho DM, et al. A comparative MR and pathological study on fetal CNS disorders. Childs Nerv Syst. 2001 Sep;17(9):512-8.
27. [11296807] Hubbard AM, States LJ. Fetal magnetic resonance imaging. Top Magn Reson Imaging. 2001 Apr;12(2):93-103.
28. [11000167] Levine D, Barnes P, Korf B, Edelman R. Tuberous sclerosis in the fetus: second-trimester diagnosis of subependymal tubers with ultrafast MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2000 Oct;175(4):1067-9.
29. [10576192] Levine D, Barnes PD, Madsen JR, Abbott J, Mehta T, Edelman RR. Central nervous system abnormalities assessed with prenatal magnetic resonance imaging. Obstet Gynecol. 1999 Dec;94(6):1011-9.
30. [9280237] Levine D, Barnes PD, Madsen JR, Li W, Edelman RR. Fetal central nervous system anomalies: MR imaging augments sonographic diagnosis. Radiology. 1997;204(3):635-642.
31. [16580298] Limperopoulos C, Robertson RL, Estroff JA, et al. Diagnosis of inferior vermian hypoplasia by fetal magnetic resonance imaging: potential pitfalls and neurodevelopmental outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006 Apr;194(4):1070-6.
32. [8452650] Okamura K, Murotsuki J, Sakai T, Matsumoto K, Shirane R, Yajima A. Prenatal diagnosis of lissencephaly by magnetic resonance image. Fetal Diagn Ther. 1993;8(1):56-9.
33. [10380297] Poutamo J, Vanninen R, Partanen K, Ryynänen, Kirkinen P. Magnetic resonance imaging supplements ultrasonographic imaging of the posterior fossa, pharynx and neck in malformed fetuses. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 1999 May;13(5):327-34.
34. [12797220] Resta M, Greco P, D'Addario V, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging in pregnancy: study of fetal cerebral malformations. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 1994 Jan 01;4(1):7-20.
35. [8278309] Revel MP, Pons JC, Lelaidier C, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of the fetus: a study of 20 cases performed without curarization. Prenat Diagn. 1993 Sep;13(9):775-99.
36. [11039352] SimonE MEMDepartment of Diagnostic Radiology, University of California, San Francisco 94143, USA., GoldsteinR BRB, CoakleyF VFV, et al. Fast MR imaging of fetal CNS anomalies in utero. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 21:1688-98, .
37. [8598986] Sonigo P, Elmaleh A, Fermont L, Delezoíde AL, Mirlesse V, Brunelle F. Prenatal MRI diagnosis of fetal cerebral tuberous sclerosis. Pediatr Radiol. 1996;26(1):1-4.
38. [9545473] Sonigo PC, Rypens FF, Carteret M, Delezoide AL, Brunelle FO. MR imaging of fetal cerebral anomalies. Pediatr Radiol. 1998 Apr;28(4):212-22.
39. [10954476] StazzoneM MMMAll authors: Department of Radiology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, 34th and Civic Center Blvd., Philadelphia, PA 19154, USA., HubbardA MAM, BilaniukL TLT, et al. Ultrafast MR imaging of the normal posterior fossa in fetuses. AJR Am J Roentgenol 175:835-9, .
40. [17476704] Tilea B, Delezoide AL, Khung-Savatovski S, et al. Comparison between magnetic resonance imaging and fetopathology in the evaluation of fetal posterior fossa non-cystic abnormalities. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2007 Jun;29(6):651-9.
41. [11368139] Whitby E, Paley MN, Davies N, Sprigg A, Griffiths PD. Ultrafast magnetic resonance imaging of central nervous system abnormalities in utero in the second and third trimester of pregnancy: comparison with ultrasound. BJOG. 2001;108(5):519-526.
42. [15094650] Brunel H, Girard N, Confort-Gouny S, et al. Fetal brain injury. J Neuroradiol. 2004 Mar;31(2):123-37.
43. [11559908] de Laveaucoupet J, Audibert F, Guis F, et al. Fetal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of ischemic brain injury. Prenat Diagn. 2001 Sep;21(9):729-36.
44. [12650407] Beuls EA, Vanormelingen L, van Aalst J, et al. In vitro high-field magnetic resonance imaging-documented anatomy of a fetal myelomeningocele at 20 weeks' gestation. A contribution to the rationale of intrauterine surgical repair of spina bifida. J Neurosurg. 2003 Mar;98(2 Suppl):210-4.
45. [2657096] Fitzmorris-Glass R, Mattrey RF, Cantrell CJ. Magnetic resonance imaging as an adjunct to ultrasound in oligohydramnios. Detection of sirenomelia. J Ultrasound Med. 1989 Mar;8(3):159-62.
46. [17032846] Glenn OA, Barkovich J. Magnetic resonance imaging of the fetal brain and spine: an increasingly important tool in prenatal diagnosis: part 2. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2006 Oct;27(9):1807-14.
47. [10867558] Mangels KJ, Tulipan N, Tsao LY, Alarcon J, Bruner JP. Fetal MRI in the evaluation of intrauterine myelomeningocele. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2000 Mar;32(3):124-31.
48. [10405065] Okamura M, Kurauchi O, Itakura A, Naganawa S, Watanabe Y, Mizutani S. Fetal sacrococcygeal teratoma visualized by ultra-fast T2 weighted magnetic resonance imaging. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 1999 May;65(2):191-3.
49. [11384802] Bekker MN, van Vugt JM. The role of magnetic resonance imaging in prenatal diagnosis of fetal anomalies. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2001 Jun;96(2):173-8.
50. [11685443] Kathary N, Bulas DI, Newman KD, Schonberg RL. MRI imaging of fetal neck masses with airway compromise: utility in delivery planning. Pediatr Radiol. 2001 Oct;31(10):727-31.
51. [12186991] Ogura T, Hamada H, Obata-Yasuoka M, et al. Antepartum assessment of fetal cystic lymphangioma by magnetic resonance imaging. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2002;53(4):237-9.
52. [8727423] Tsuda H, Matsumoto M, Yamamoto K, et al. Usefulness of ultrasonography and magnetic resonance imaging for prenatal diagnosis of fetal teratoma of the neck. J Clin Ultrasound. 1996 May;24(4):217-9.
53. [11215712] Hubbard AM. Magnetic resonance imaging of fetal thoracic abnormalities. Top Magn Reson Imaging. 2001 Feb;12(1):18-24.
54. [12821772] Levine D, Barnewolt CE, Mehta TS, Trop I, Estroff J, Wong G. Fetal thoracic abnormalities: MR imaging. Radiology. 2003 Aug;228(2):379-88.
55. [14564118] Matsuoka S, Takeuchi K, Yamanaka Y, Kaji Y, Sugimura K, Maruo T. Comparison of magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasonography in the prenatal diagnosis of congenital thoracic abnormalities. Fetal Diagn Ther. 2003;18(6):447-53.
56. [17208564] BarnewoltCarol ECEDepartment of Radiology, Children's Hospital Boston and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA., KunisakiShaun MSM, FauzaDario ODO, NemesLuanne PLP, EstroffJudy AJA, JenningsRussell WRW. Percent predicted lung volumes as measured on fetal magnetic resonance imaging: a useful biometric parameter for risk stratification in congenital diaphragmatic hernia. J Pediatr Surg 42:193-7, .
57. [16273597] GorincourGGDepartment of Pediatric Radiology, La Timone Children's Hospital, Marseilles, France. guillaume.gorincour@mail.ap-hm.fr, BouvenotJJ, MourotM GMG, et al. Prenatal prognosis of congenital diaphragmatic hernia using magnetic resonance imaging measurement of fetal lung volume. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 26:738-44, .
58. [16793978] WardValerie LVLDepartment of Radiology, Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 300 Longwood Ave, Boston, MA 02115, USA. valerie.ward@childrens.harvard.edu, NishinoMizukiM, HatabuHirotoH, et al. Fetal lung volume measurements: determination with MR imaging--effect of various factors. Radiology 240:187-93, .
59. [15459321] WilliamsGethinGDepartment of Radiology, University of California San Francisco, 505 Parnassus Ave, Box 0628, San Francisco, CA 94143-0628, USA., CoakleyFergus VFV, QayyumAliyaA, FarmerDiana LDL, JoeBonnie NBN, FillyRoy ARA. Fetal relative lung volume: quantification by using prenatal MR imaging lung volumetry. Radiology 233:457-62, .
60. [21683216] LeeTimothy CTCThe CDH Team, Division of Pediatric General, Thoracic and Fetal Surgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati, OH 45229-3039, USA., LimFoong YFY, KeswaniSundeep GSG, et al. Late gestation fetal magnetic resonance imaging-derived total lung volume predicts postnatal survival and need for extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support in isolated congenital diaphragmatic hernia. J Pediatr Surg 46:1165-71, .
61. [15136891] VeyracCCService de Radiologie Pédiatrique, Hôpital Arnaud-de-Villeneuve, Avenue du Doyen Gaston Giraud, 34295 Montpellier Cédex 5, France. c-veyrac@chu-montpellier.fr, CoutureAA, SaguintaahMM, BaudCC. MRI of fetal GI tract abnormalities. Abdom Imaging 29:411-20, .
62. [17063351] Kline-FathBeth MBMDepartment of Radiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA., Calvo-GarciaMaria AMA, O'HaraSara MSM, CrombleholmeTimothy MTM, RacadioJudy MJM. Twin-twin transfusion syndrome: cerebral ischemia is not the only fetal MR imaging finding. Pediatr Radiol 37:47-56, .
63. [8309906] ZoppiniCCFirst Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Milano, Italy., VanzulliAA, KustermannAA, RizzutiTT, SelicorniAA, NicoliniUU. Prenatal diagnosis of anatomical connections in conjoined twins by use of contrast magnetic resonance imaging. Prenat Diagn 13:995-9, .
64. [18928987] JelinAngie CACDepartment of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of California, School of Medicine, San Francisco, CA, USA., NortonMary EME, BarthaAgnes IAI, FickAndrea LAL, GlennOrit AOA. Intracranial magnetic resonance imaging findings in the surviving fetus after spontaneous monochorionic cotwin demise. Am J Obstet Gynecol 199:398.e1-5, .
65. [11215715] Coakley FV. Role of magnetic resonance imaging in fetal surgery. Top Magn Reson Imaging. 2001 Feb;12(1):39-51.
66. [17515841] Hayakawa M, Seo T, Itakua A, et al. The MRI findings of the right-sided fetal lung can be used to predict postnatal mortality and the requirement for extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in isolated left-sided congenital diaphragmatic hernia. Pediatr Res. 2007 Jul;62(1):93-7.
67. [16284762] Hu LS, Caire J, Twickler DM. MR findings of complicated multifetal gestations. Pediatr Radiol. 2006 Jan;36(1):76-81.
68. [9565224] Hubbard AM, Crombleholme TM, Adzick NS. Prenatal MRI evaluation of giant neck masses in preparation for the fetal exit procedure. Am J Perinatol. 1998 Apr;15(4):253-7.
69. [17135754] Mota R, Ramalho C, Monteiro J, et al. Evolving indications for the EXIT procedure: the usefulness of combining ultrasound and fetal MRI. Fetal Diagn Ther. 2007;22(2):107-11.
70. [21456906] Grant RA, Heuer GG, Carrión GM, et al. Morphometric analysis of posterior fossa after in utero myelomeningocele repair. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2011 Apr;7(4):362-8.
71. [24074653] Ali K, Grigoratos D, Cornelius V, Davenport M, Nicolaides K, Greenough A. Outcome of CDH infants following fetoscopic tracheal occlusion - influence of premature delivery. J Pediatr Surg. 2013 Sep;48(9):S0022-3468(13)00133-4.
72. [31102327] Zaghal AA, Hussain HK, Berjawi GA. MRI evaluation of the placenta from normal variants to abnormalities of implantation and malignancies. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2019 Dec;50(6):1702-1717.
73. [-3098654] American College of Radiology. ACR Practice Parameter for Performing and Interpreting Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). Available at: https://gravitas.acr.org/PPTS/GetDocumentView?docId=146+&releaseId=2
74. [23345200] Expert Panel on MR Safety, Kanal E, Barkovich AJ, et al. ACR guidance document on MR safe practices: 2013. J Magn Reson Imaging. 37(3):501-30, 2013 Mar.
75. [-3188535] American College of Radiology. ACR Committee on Drugs and Contrast Media. Manual on Contrast Media. Available at: https://www.acr.org/Clinical-Resources/Clinical-Tools-and-Reference/Contrast-Manual.
76. [-3120926] American College of Radiology. ACR-SPR Practice Parameter for Imaging Pregnant or Potentially Pregnant Patients with Ionizing Radiation. Available at: https://gravitas.acr.org/PPTS/GetDocumentView?docId=23+&releaseId=2.
77. [8296840] Baker PN, Johnson IR, Harvey PR, Gowland PA, Mansfield P. A three-year follow-up of children imaged in utero with echo-planar magnetic resonance. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1994 Jan;170(1 Pt 1):32-3.
78. [11241816] Chew S, Ahmadi A, Goh PS, Foong LC. The effects of 1.5T magnetic resonance imaging on early murine in-vitro embryo development. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2001 Mar;13(3):417-20.
79. [10884733] Clements H, Duncan KR, Fielding K, Gowland PA, Johnson IR, Baker PN. Infants exposed to MRI in utero have a normal paediatric assessment at 9 months of age. Br J Radiol. 2000 Feb;73(866):190-4.
80. [7496710] Glover P, Hykin J, Gowland P, Wright J, Johnson I, Mansfield P. An assessment of the intrauterine sound intensity level during obstetric echo-planar magnetic resonance imaging. Br J Radiol. 1995 Oct;68(814):1090-4.
81. [8475280] Kanal E, Gillen J, Evans JA, Savitz DA, Shellock FG. Survey of reproductive health among female MR workers. Radiology. 1993 May;187(2):395-9.
82. [15234454] Kok RD, de Vries MM, Heerschap A, van den Berg PP. Absence of harmful effects of magnetic resonance exposure at 1.5 T in utero during the third trimester of pregnancy: a follow-up study. Magn Reson Imaging. 2004 Jul;22(6):851-4.
83. [11382944] Levine D, Zuo C, Faro CB, Chen Q. Potential heating effect in the gravid uterus during MR HASTE imaging. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2001 Jun;13(6):856-61.
84. [16530632] Merkle EM, Dale BM, Paulson EK. Abdominal MR imaging at 3T. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am. 2006 Feb;14(1):17-26.
85. [9691901] Myers C, Duncan KR, Gowland PA, Johnson IR, Baker PN. Failure to detect intrauterine growth restriction following in utero exposure to MRI. Br J Radiol. 1998 May;71(845):549-51.
86. [6981326] Schwartz JL, Crooks LE. NMR imaging produces no observable mutations or cytotoxicity in mammalian cells. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1982 Sep;139(3):583-5.
87. [15284433] Shellock FG, Crues JV. MR procedures: biologic effects, safety, and patient care. Radiology. 2004 Sep;232(3):635-52.
88. [27599330] Ray JG, Vermeulen MJ, Bharatha A, Montanera WJ, Park AL. Association Between MRI Exposure During Pregnancy and Fetal and Childhood Outcomes. JAMA. 2016;316(9):952-961.
89. [18843171] Gowland PA, De Wilde J. Temperature increase in the fetus due to radio frequency exposure during magnetic resonance scanning. Phys Med Biol. 2008 Nov 07;53(21):L15-8.
90. [20090188] Hand JW, Li Y, Hajnal JV. Numerical study of RF exposure and the resulting temperature rise in the foetus during a magnetic resonance procedure. Phys Med Biol. 2010 Feb 21;55(4):913-30.
91. [21964524] MurbachManuelMIT'IS Foundation, Zurich, Switzerland. murbach@itis.ethz.ch, CabotEugeniaE, NeufeldEsraE, et al. Local SAR enhancements in anatomically correct children and adult models as a function of position within 1.5 T MR body coil. Prog Biophys Mol Biol 107:428-33, .
92. [19033645] PediaditisMMInstitute of Health Care Engineering with European Notified Body of Medical Devices, Graz University of Technology, Inffeldgasse 18, 8010 Graz, Austria., LeitgebNN, CechRR. RF-EMF exposure of fetus and mother during magnetic resonance imaging. Phys Med Biol 53:7187-95, .
93. [10931582] RungeV MVMDepartment of Diagnostic Radiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40536, USA. runge@pop.uky.edu. Safety of approved MR contrast media for intravenous injection. J Magn Reson Imaging 12:205-13, .
94. [-3197619] American College of Radiology. ACR–SIR Practice Parameter For Minimal and/or Moderate Sedation/Analgesia. Available at https://gravitas.acr.org/PPTS/GetDocumentView?docId=95+&releaseId=2
95. [28370252] van Amerom JFP, Lloyd DFA, Price AN, et al. Fetal cardiac cine imaging using highly accelerated dynamic MRI with retrospective motion correction and outlier rejection. Magn Reson Med. 2018 Jan;79(1):327-338.
96. [16292644] Agid R, Lieberman S, Nadjari M, Gomori JM. Prenatal MR diffusion-weighted imaging in a fetus with hemimegalencephaly. Pediatr Radiol. 2006 Feb;36(2):138-40.
97. [12210800] Baldoli C, Righini A, Parazzini C, Scotti G, Triulzi F. Demonstration of acute ischemic lesions in the fetal brain by diffusion magnetic resonance imaging. Ann Neurol. 2002 Aug;52(2):243-6.
98. [16377112] Brugger PC, Stuhr F, Lindner C, Prayer D. Methods of fetal MR: beyond T2-weighted imaging. Eur J Radiol. 2006 Feb;57(2):172-81.
99. [30558501] RoyChristopher WCWDepartment of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Canada (C.W.R., C.K.M.).Division of Translational Medicine (C.W.R., E.M.S., E.J., C.K.M)., MariniDavideDDivision of Pediatric Cardiology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada (D.M., W.M., S.-J.Y., E.J., M.S.)., LloydDavid F ADFADivision of Imaging Sciences and Biomedical Engineering, King's College London, United Kingdom (D.F.A.L.).Departments of Paediatric and Fetal Cardiology, Evelina Children's Hospital, London, United Kingdom (D.F.A.L.)., et al. Preliminary Experience Using Motion Compensated CINE Magnetic Resonance Imaging to Visualise Fetal Congenital Heart Disease. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 11:e007745, .
100. [15908548] FarhatazizNabeelNDepartment of Radiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390-8896, USA., EngelsJennifer EJE, RamusRonald MRM, ZaretskyMichaelM, TwicklerDiane MDM. Fetal MRI of urine and meconium by gestational age for the diagnosis of genitourinary and gastrointestinal abnormalities. AJR Am J Roentgenol 184:1891-7, .
101. [8161905] Martí-Bonmatí L, Baamonde A, Poyatos CR, Monteagudo E. Prenatal diagnosis of idiopathic neonatal hemochromatosis with MRI. Abdom Imaging. 1994;19(1):55-6.
102. [7906814] Baker PN, Johnson IR, Gowland PA, et al. Fetal weight estimation by echo-planar magnetic resonance imaging. Lancet. 1994 Mar 12;343(8898):644-5.
103. [9621964] Gong QY, Roberts N, Garden AS, Whitehouse GH. Fetal and fetal brain volume estimation in the third trimester of human pregnancy using gradient echo MR imaging. Magn Reson Imaging. 1998 Apr;16(3):235-40.
104. [12353277] Kok RD, van den Berg PP, van den Bergh AJ, Nijland R, Heerschap A. Maturation of the human fetal brain as observed by 1H MR spectroscopy. Magn Reson Med. 2002 Oct;48(4):611-6.
105. [10746838] Uotila J, Dastidar P, Heinonen T, Ryymin P, Punnonen R, Laasonen E. Magnetic resonance imaging compared to ultrasonography in fetal weight and volume estimation in diabetic and normal pregnancy. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2000 Apr;79(4):255-9.
106. [16247158] Zaretsky M, Ramus R, McIntire D, Magee K, Twickler DM. MRI calculation of lung volumes to predict outcome in fetuses with genitourinary abnormalities. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2005 Nov;185(5):1328-34.
107. [14586347] Zaretsky MV, Reichel TF, McIntire DD, Twickler DM. Comparison of magnetic resonance imaging to ultrasound in the estimation of birth weight at term. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003 Oct;189(4):1017-20.
108. [21087938] Hayat TT, Nihat A, Martinez-Biarge M, et al. Optimization and initial experience of a multisection balanced steady-state free precession cine sequence for the assessment of fetal behavior in utero. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2011 Feb;32(2):331-8.
109. [21633000] Houshmand G, Hosseinzadeh K, Ozolek J. Prenatal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings of a foregut duplication cyst of the tongue: value of real-time MRI evaluation of the fetal swallowing mechanism. J Ultrasound Med. 2011 Jun;30(6):843-50.
110. [23382068] Roy CW, Seed M, van Amerom JF, et al. Dynamic imaging of the fetal heart using metric optimized gating. Magn Reson Med. 2013 Dec;70(6):1598-607.
111. [19746445] Salomon LJ, Sonigo P, Ou P, Ville Y, Brunelle F. Real-time fetal magnetic resonance imaging for the dynamic visualization of the pouch in esophageal atresia. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2009 Oct;34(4):471-4.
112. [-3197621] American College of Radiology. ACR Practice Parameter for Communication of Diagnostic Imaging Findings. Available at https://gravitas.acr.org/PPTS/GetDocumentView?docId=74+&releaseId=2
113. [-3197639] American College of Radiology. ACR–AAPM Technical Standard for Diagnostic Medical Physics Performance Monitoring of Magnetic Resonance (MR) Imaging Equipment. Available at https://gravitas.acr.org/PPTS/GetDocumentView?docId=57+&releaseId=2